Analysis of plant food composition of human sacrifices in Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province during the late Shang and early Zhou periods: Evidence from starch grains and phytoliths in dental calculus
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摘要:
殉人的植物性食物组成分析是了解个体乃至群体生活习性和生活状况的重要基础, 对于殉人的身份辨识及殉葬制度研究具有十分重要的考古学意义。商周时期存在大量墓葬殉人现象, 以往研究多集中在殉人与墓主关系、殉人身份辨识等方面, 对其植物性食物来源的分析十分薄弱。本研究选取陕西旬邑西头遗址M90的37具殉人作为对象, 对其牙齿表面附着牙结石进行淀粉粒和植硅体分析, 并对墓葬中随葬动物骨骼等样品进行14C年代测定。结果显示, M90年代应为商末周初时期; 发现有粟类植物、小麦族(Triticeae)、块根块茎、食用豆类、坚果类等5类植物淀粉粒, 以及粟稃壳、禾草类稃壳、早熟禾亚科和黍亚科等茎叶植硅体。综合商周时期旬邑地区植物考古的证据, 认为西头遗址殉人的植物性食物结构较为多样, 以当时社会主流的粟(Setaria italica)、黍(Panicum miliaceum)等粟类作物为主, 小麦族植物占比较少, 块根块茎、食用豆类和坚果类植物亦有部分摄入。从淀粉粒的损伤特征和稃壳类植硅体的发现来看, 食物在食用前经过了碾磨或蒸煮等加工处理, 其谷物脱壳水平应较为先进。此外, 殉人在以粟黍为主的主粮摄入上无明显差别, 仅在小麦族植物的食用上有所区别。目前所知商周时期殉人的食谱均以粟黍为主的C4类植物为主, 但由于殉人与墓主关系及殉人身份等级的差异, 在以小麦族植物为代表的C3类植物摄入上差异明显, 这种差异性的饮食结构显示了不同时期先民在饮食上的选择偏好, 以及等级差异对古人饮食的影响。本研究首次从植物利用角度对殉人的食谱进行分析, 填补了以往文献、植物大遗存和碳氮稳定同位素分析对古人饮食来源认识的不足, 为商周时期殉葬制度研究提供了新思路。
Abstract:Previous study on the human sacrifices mostly focused on the relationship between human sacrifices and tomb owners, identification of human sacrifices, etc., the analysis of plant food sources was very weak. This paper presents the starch grain and phytolith analysis of 138 teeth of 37 human sacrifices in M90 from Xunyi Xitou site(35°01'59.94''N, 108°12'57.59''E)in Shaanxi Province, and the 14C dating of the buried animal bones and other samples was carried out. The 14C dating results showed that M90 should be dated to the late Shang and early Zhou periods, and a total of 784 single starch grains and 1557 phytoliths were extracted from this experiment. Except for some starch grains that could not be identified(n=16)or had varying degrees of surface damage(n=249), the remaining could be identified into five categories, including millet(n=322), Triticeae(n=93), roots and tubers(n=58), edible beans(n=6), and nuts(n=40). Only one foxtail millet husks and three unknown husks of Poceae were found, the rest phytoliths were stems and leaves of Pooideae and Panicoideae. These data demonstrate that the human sacrifices at the Xitou site had a diverse plant food structure: foxtail millet(Setaria italica)and broomcorn millet(Panicum miliaceum)was the staple crops, Triticeae accounts for a relatively small proportion, while roots and tubers, edible beans and nuts were also partially consumed. The damaged starch grains and the crop husk phytoliths indicates that food should have undergone processing before consumption, such as grounding, boiling or steaming, and the level of grain hulling should be relatively advanced. In addition, the M90's human sacrifices did not differ significantly in the intake of staple crops(foxtail millet and broomcorn millet), only showed a slightly inconsistency in the consumption of Triticeae. Collected and compared the recipes of human sacrifices from other contemporaneous sites, the recipes were also based on C4 plants(foxtail millet and broomcorn millet), but there were little different in the intake of C3 plants represented by Triticeae, which probably due to the relationship between the human sacrifices and the tomb owner, and also the human sacrifice's different status rank. This study is the first to analyze the recipes of the human sacrifices from the perspective of plant utilization, which fills the shortage in the previous literature, plant macroremains and stable carbon and nitrogen isotope study, and provides new ideas for the study of human sacrifice system in Shang and Zhou periods.
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Key words:
- late Shang and early Zhou /
- human sacrifice /
- dental calculus /
- starch grain /
- phytolith /
- plant food
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图 1
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90殉人情况及取样相关图片
Figure 1.
The pictures related to M90's human sacrifice and extracted samples from the Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province.
图 2
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90殉人牙结石中提取的淀粉粒类型(标尺：20 μm)
Figure 2.
The starch grains extracted from the human sacrifice's dental calculus of M90 at Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province(scale bar: 20 μm)
图 3
与本次实验提取到的古代淀粉粒相关的现代植物淀粉粒(标尺：20 μm)
Figure 3.
Starch grains from modern plant species in China relate to the identification of ancient starch grain(scale bar: 20 μm)
图 4
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90殉人牙结石中提取的损伤淀粉粒(a~l)与现代模拟实验的损伤淀粉粒(m~r)(标尺：20 μm)
Figure 4.
The damaged starch grains extracted from the human sacrifice's dental calculus of M90 at Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province(a~l)and modern simulation experiments(m~r)(scale bar: 20 μm).(a, b)Cleavage from the edges inward and transparency in the center; (c, d)Distortion and deformation, central transparency; (e, f)Inflation of the periphery, transparency of the center; (g, h)Transparent areas appear in the center and edge; (i)Expansion, distortion and deformation; (j)Complete transparency; (k, l)The fissure intensifies and the center begins to be transparent; (m)~ (o)Damaged starch grains of broomcorn millet at 5 min, 15 min and 25 min of steaming; (p)~ (r)Damaged starch grains of broomcorn millet at 5 min, 10 min and 15 min of boiling
图 5
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90殉人牙结石中提取的植硅体类型(标尺：20 μm)
Figure 5.
The phytoliths extracted from the human sacrifice's dental calculus of M90 at Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province (scale bar: 20 μm)
图 6
陕西旬邑商周时期各遗址炭化农作物遗存对比图
Figure 6.
The comparison of carbonized crop remains from Shang and Zhou period sites in Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province
表 1
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90殉人及牙齿样品情况统计
Table 1.
Statistical table of M90's human sacrifice and dental samples from Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province
编号 样品来源* 取样部位** 性别*** 年龄*** 1 M90-SX1 臼齿(1)、前臼齿(2) — — 2 M90-SX2 前臼齿(1) — — 3 M90-SX3 臼齿(1) — — 4 M90-SX4 臼齿(3)、前臼齿(1) — — 5 M90-SX5 左下臼齿(2)、左上臼齿(1)、左上前臼齿(1) — — 6 M90-DX1 左下臼齿(2)、左下前臼齿(1) 女 25~30岁 7 M90-DX2 左上臼齿(2)、左下臼齿(1)、右上臼齿(1)、右下前臼齿(1) 女 35~39岁 8 M90-DX3 左下臼齿(1)、左下前臼齿(1)、左下犬齿(1)、左上臼齿(1) 女 25~35岁 9 M90-DX4 左下臼齿(1)、左下前臼齿(2) 女 22~30岁 10 M90-DX5 前臼齿(1)；臼齿(2) — 22~30岁 11 M90-DX7 右上臼齿(2)、右上前臼齿(1)、左下臼齿(2)、左下前臼齿(1) 女 18~22岁 12 M90-DX9 左下臼齿(1)、左上臼齿(1)、左上前臼齿(1)、左上犬齿(1)、右下臼齿(1) 女 40~50岁 13 M90-DX10 左上臼齿(1)、右上前臼齿(2)、右上犬齿(1)、左下前臼齿(2) 女 25~35岁 14 M90-DX11 右上前臼齿(1)、右上犬齿(1)；右下臼齿(1)、右下前臼齿(2) 女 35~40岁 15 M90-DX12 左下臼齿(1)、左下前臼齿(1)、左上臼齿(1)、左上前臼齿(1) 女 25~30岁或25± 16 M90-DX13 左上门齿(1)、左上犬齿(1)、右下臼齿(1)、右下前臼齿(1) 女 40~45岁 17 M90-DX14 右上门齿(2)、右上犬齿(1)、右下前臼齿(2) 女 成年 18 M90-DX15 右上门齿(2)、右上犬齿(1)、右上前臼齿(1)、右下前臼齿(2) 女 — 19 M90-DX16 左上前臼齿(1)、左上犬齿(1)、左下犬齿(1) 女 — 20 M90-DX18 左下臼齿(1)、左下前臼齿(1)、左下犬齿(1)、右下前臼齿(2) 女 45~50岁 21 M90-DX19 臼齿(3)、前臼齿(1)、犬齿(1) 男 — 22 M90-DX20 前臼齿(2) 男 24~25岁 23 M90-DX21 左上臼齿(2)、左下臼齿(1)、左下前臼齿(1) 男 — 24 M90-DX22 右下臼齿(2)、左上前臼齿(2)、犬齿(1) — 15岁左右 25 M90-DX25 左上臼齿(2)、左下臼齿(1) 女 24~26岁 26 M90-DX26 臼齿(2) 男 — 27 M90-DX27 臼齿(4) 女 24~25岁 28 M90-DX28 左下臼齿(2) 女 22~25岁 29 M90-DX29 臼齿(4) 女 16~18岁 30 M90-DX30 臼齿(3) 男 18岁以上 31 M90-DX31 臼齿(3)、门齿(1) — — 32 M90-DX32 臼齿(2)、前臼齿(1) 男 成年 33 M90-DX33 右上臼齿(2)、前臼齿(1) 疑似男 成年 34 M90-DX35 臼齿(4) 女 — 35 M90-DX36 臼齿(3) — 未成年 36 M90-DX37 臼齿(4) — 未成年 37 M90-DX38 左下臼齿(2)、前臼齿(2) 男 24~29岁 * “SX”表示墓室殉人；“DX”表示墓道殉人
** 括号中数据代表的是牙齿的数量
*** “—”表示具体信息尚不确定
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表 2
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90测年样品AMS 14C年代与校正后14C年代
Table 2.
AMS 14C dates and calibrated14C dates of M90 at Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province
样品编号 实验室编号 样品来源 14C年代
(a B. P.)校正年代
(cal.a B.P. ±2σ)2021A1 Beta-614431 M90(草席) 3110±30 3328±46 2021A2 Beta-614432 M90(竹制品) 3030±30 3234±58 2021A4 Beta-614434 M90(动物骨骼) 2510±30 2586±74
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表 3
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90殉人牙结石中获取淀粉粒分类统计表
Table 3.
Classification statistics of starch grains obtained from the human sacrifice's dental calculus of M90 at Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province
实验室编号 样品来源 A 粒径范围和平均粒径(μm) B 粒径范围和平均粒径(μm) C 粒径范围和平均粒径(μm) D 粒径范围和平均粒径(μm) E 粒径范围和平均粒径(μm) F G 合计 S1 M90-SX1 9 7.8 ~26.3
16.4±3.63 6.6 ~36.5
17.7±7.74 8.4 ~23.0
16.2±3.20 17.9 ~32.2
21.6±5.34 9.4~22.9
15.1±2.82 1 23 S2 M90-SX2 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 S3 M90-SX3 2 0 0 0 0 5 0 7 S4 M90-SX4 2 2 0 0 0 7 0 11 S5 M90-SX5 5 3 4 0 0 10 0 22 S6 M90-DX1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 S7 M90-DX2 50 16 6 0 14 19 1 106 S8 M90-DX3 4 4 0 0 0 12 1 21 S9 M90-DX4 6 3 0 0 0 7 0 16 S10 M90-DX5 2 0 1 1 0 2 0 6 S11 M90-DX7 16 4 4 0 1 2 0 27 S12 M90-DX9 3 15 0 2 3 7 0 30 S13 M90-DX10 1 6 0 0 0 3 0 10 S14 M90-DX11 3 1 0 0 0 1 0 5 S15 M90-DX12 6 0 0 0 0 4 0 10 S16 M90-DX13 1 2 0 0 0 3 0 6 S17 M90-DX14 11 3 0 0 0 5 0 19 S18 M90-DX15 4 0 2 0 3 8 1 18 S19 M90-DX16 8 0 0 0 0 4 0 12 S20 M90-DX18 3 0 1 0 0 3 0 7 S21 M90-DX19 7 6 4 0 0 11 0 28 S22 M90-DX20 3 1 0 0 0 2 0 6 S23 M90-DX21 57 23 10 2 4 12 5 113 S24 M90-DX22 8 0 0 0 0 4 0 12 S25 M90-DX25 25 0 2 0 0 3 0 30 S26 M90-DX26 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 S27 M90-DX27 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 6 S28 M90-DX28 17 0 2 0 4 7 1 31 S29 M90-DX29 5 0 0 0 0 9 0 14 S30 M90-DX30 3 0 0 0 0 19 0 22 S31 M90-DX31 2 1 0 0 0 10 0 13 S32 M90-DX32 2 0 0 0 0 8 0 10 S33 M90-DX33 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 6 S34 M90-DX35 10 0 2 0 1 5 0 18 S35 M90-DX36 18 0 7 1 2 9 1 38 S36 M90-DX37 26 0 8 0 4 18 5 61 S37 M90-DX38 3 0 1 0 0 5 0 9 合计 322 93 58 6 40 249 16 784 百分比(占可鉴定淀粉粒总数) 62.04% 17.92% 11.17% 1.16% 7.71% 出现频率 86.48% 43.24% 40.54% 10.81% 27.02%
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表 4
陕西旬邑西头遗址M90殉人牙结石中获取植硅体分类统计表
Table 4.
Classification statistics of phytoliths obtained from the human sacrifice's dental calculus of M90 at Xitou site, Xunyi County, Shaanxi Province
实验室编号 样品来源 哑铃型 多铃型 十字型 尖型 方型 长方型 平滑棒型 刺棒型 帽型 齿型 普通扇型 长鞍型 三棱柱型 粟稃壳Ω型 禾草类稃壳 表皮细胞 无法鉴定 合计 P1 M90-SX1 5 0 0 10 0 2 41 2 129 5 0 0 0 0 1 0 16 211 P2 M90-SX2 4 0 0 4 3 1 8 0 22 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 54 P3 M90-SX3 1 1 0 4 6 4 11 0 19 5 0 1 0 0 0 0 8 60 P4 M90-SX4 2 1 0 2 1 0 4 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 16 P5 M90-MX5 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 P6 M90-DX1 1 0 0 5 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 19 P7 M90-DX2 2 0 0 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 10 P8 M90-DX3 0 0 0 4 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 16 P9 M90-DX4 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 P10 M90-DX5 3 0 0 2 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 14 P11 M90-DX7 6 0 0 3 0 2 3 2 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 43 P12 M90-DX9 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 18 P13 M90-DX10 2 0 0 1 1 0 7 1 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 27 P14 M90-DX11 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 P15 M90-DX12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 P16 M90-DX13 3 0 0 4 5 0 18 0 17 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 63 P17 M90-DX14 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 P18 M90-DX15 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 P19 M90-DX16 2 0 0 13 0 3 7 8 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 44 P10 M90-DX18 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 9 P21 M90-DX19 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 P22 M90-DX20 7 0 0 9 7 13 11 2 35 9 1 0 0 1 1 0 25 121 P23 M90-DX21 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 P24 M90-DX22 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 P25 M90-DX25 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 11 P26 M90-DX26 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 P27 M90-DX27 19 0 2 16 1 10 47 3 152 1 1 3 6 0 0 0 4 265 P28 M90-DX28 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 P29 M90-DX29 0 0 0 4 4 5 4 19 5 0 2 0 3 0 0 0 13 59 P30 M90-DX30 6 0 0 3 1 6 11 4 7 4 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 48 P31 M90-DX31 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 P32 M90-DX32 11 1 0 3 2 1 4 1 15 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 45 P33 M90-DX33 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 P34 M90-DX35 20 0 0 19 13 7 18 9 34 2 10 2 0 0 1 3 21 159 P35 M90-DX36 6 0 0 11 5 10 14 8 10 1 12 0 0 0 0 0 9 86 P36 M90-DX37 8 0 0 10 4 12 8 2 33 0 7 0 0 0 0 1 8 93 P37 M90-DX38 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 合计 118 4 2 140 57 80 236 64 526 46 35 7 9 1 3 5 224 1557
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